Concrete is one of the most important materials used in modern construction. Found in buildings, roads, bridges, and foundations, concrete is strong, durable and widely available. Concrete is inexpensive to make, which makes it practical for large scale infrastructure.  The first key advantage of concrete is durability. Once hardened, it can last for decades with minimal maintenance. It resists weathering, fire, and water damage far better than materials like wood. Concrete c

Solubility is the maximum amount a solute can dissolve in a certain amount of solvent. Carbonation occurs when pressurised carbon dioxide is injected and dissolved in water. The solubility of a gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solution. If there is a greater pressure in the space above the solution or on the solution, there will be a greater solubility of the gas dissolved in the solution. This trend is what the carbonati

You might recall that mosquitoes are one of the deadliest insects in the world, based on the number of people that are killed every year from various diseases transmitted by mosquitoes.  In 2025, mosquitoes have become even more deadly. China’s southern industrial hub has thus far recorded over 3,000+ chikungunya cases so far this month, which is yet another mosquito-borne virus that first appeared in mainland China almost 20 years ago. A Short History  Chikungunya is not ent

There’s nothing more refreshing than an icy cold drink on a hot day. What is not so refreshing is the brain freeze that follows. Ironically, your brain does not drop several degrees in temperature when you experience a brain freeze. What actually happens during a “brain freeze”? Why do they hurt our heads, despite our cold food being in our mouths? And most importantly, how do we get rid of these ice cream headaches to resume eating our delicious summer treats? Brain freezes

Have you ever wondered what it would be like if a computer could break the rules of reality? If tiny particles could store millions of pieces of data? If computers could think in ways completely different to our laptops and phones? Welcome to the world of quantum computing.  Regular computers are incredibly powerful, but they have their limits. Some problems, such as simulating molecules for new medicines or modelling complex chemical reactions, are too complex. So, quantum c

The immune system is supposed to be the body's defense mechanism, but for some individuals, it's their biggest vulnerability. It’s an attacking mechanism that unfortunately we fail to put up a battle against. This mechanism takes its status as an autoimmune disease. The Science Behind Autoimmune Diseases Autoimmune diseases arise from the malfunction of the immune system. Instead of attacking foreign invaders like pathogens, the immune system (white blood cells like B-cells a

Gears are one of the most important inventions in mechanical engineering. They are essential parts for motion transfer and force between parts of a machine. The unique design of gears, where it has teeth around its circular shape, allows one part to spin another, changing their speed and directions. Initially, gears were built to make work easier. In ancient China, wooden gears were used to lift water for farming; and in ancient Greece, gears helped track the movement of star

French fries, tater tots, crispy chips… We humans derive a lot of value from the underground tuber of Solanum tuberosum . Yet, some of its closest relatives don’t have tubers for us to eat. So, how did the potato come about? Turns out, we owe this starchy goodness to tomatoes. Potatoes are the underground tubers of the potato plant ( Solanum tuberosum ). The tubers are modified stems that store food for the plant, and is used to grow another potato plant asexually. Yet some o

Private Equity (PE) is an investment class characterised by holding equity in a privately-owned company, often to improve operations, restructure and later exit at a profit. When receiving proposals from businesses, PE firms notably consider: Total Addressable Market (TAM): Pertaining to the overall revenue opportunity available should the firm receive 100% market share in the industry. Competitive Moat: A set of unique advantages (e.g: brand imaging, proprietary technology)

All life on Earth is made from molecules that are known to be “chiral”. This means that they can exist in 2 versions, like your left and right hands. They look the same, but can’t be perfectly laid on top of each other. For example, all of the proteins in our bodies are made of left-handed amino acids (L amino acids). But there are also right-handed ones (D-amino acids), which life on Earth doesn’t use.  Mirror life is a hypothetical form of biology built entirely from these

Early examples of malls have included Trajan's Market in ancient Rome, considered the first shopping mall, and the 19th-century Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan. They date back for thousands of years. But in the last hundred years, mall designs have become more and more complex. But why? The ‘Gruen effect’ Mall designs are intentionally built to create disorientation within shoppers and keep them in the space longer, encouraging impulse buys. The way these malls are des

We’ve all probably heard of two of the four stress responses; fight  or flight —the body’s instinctive reactions to danger. But have you ever been in a situation where your body seems to betray you instead?  Maybe, you freeze up during a presentation, your mind going blank. Or perhaps, in a simple interaction with a teacher, you try to smile, but your face feels tense—and you’re now stuck with an award smile plastered on your face, eye twitching. That’s your nervous system in

These days, robots are more than just science fiction; they can conduct surgeries, deliver your pizza, and stack boxes in warehouses. Machines are learning to perform jobs that once thought unattainable for anything without a heartbeat, from factory floors to schools. However, a major concern remains as robots grow in intelligence and capability: will they assist humans or take their place? In actuality, the development of robots has the potential to fundamentally alter how w

In a previous article, we learnt the importance of alternating currents (also known as AC) and its role of transmitting electricity over long distances. In this article, we will learn the physics behind generating AC. Then, we will explore how transformers work and we can answer the question that was left hanging in the previous article: why can AC be transformed, and not direct current (DC)?  How is AC generated?  The process of AC generation relies on  the conversion of mec

As an American-born Chinese, you’re almost destined to be crushed by the reality that is our society. Growing up with a blend of different cultures and expectations, many struggle to discover their identity, and are in a constant dilemma between conforming to societal norms and reinforcing personal cultural heritage. It’s an identity crisis that is much more complex than meets the eye, a topic that is “just a phase” expected of you to experience. Before we move on, I’d like t

Every time you eat an apple, a bowl of noodles, or a sandwich for lunch, your dietary choices have an effect on the environment in addition to your body. Asking questions like "How was this grown, made, transported, and wasted?" will help you determine whether your food is environmentally friendly. What does Eco-Friendly Food Really Mean? An eco-friendly food option is one that meets people's requirements while putting less of an impact on the environment. Several important f

Psychology is the study of human behaviour. It explores why we think and feel the way we do. What motivates us to behave in the way we do? Why do people of similar backgrounds behave differently from one another? In 1943, a psychologist named Abraham Maslow published a paper titled “A Theory of Human Motivation”, where he attempted to explain what motivates us to pursue our different needs.  In this article, we will explore the theory commonly known as Maslow’s hierarchy of n

The world is facing an enormous challenge of converting to clean energy. Sustainability is the primary aim, which means current energy requirements must be met without harming the future. An efficient energy system must be able to conserve the environment, conserve resources, and be cost-effective. As fossil fuels are not replenishable and harm the environment, it becomes imperative to give weight to three major renewable energy sources: solar, wind, and hydropower. For over

Cancer has always been one of medicine’s toughest battles. Treatments like chemotherapy and radiation have saved countless lives, but they often come with brutal side effects and don’t always prevent the cancer from returning. Now, researchers believe they are on the verge of a breakthrough—a new cancer vaccine.   This isn’t a conventional vaccine. It doesn’t stop you from getting cancer, but is instead ‘ therapeutic ’—designed for people who already have it. Traditionally, c

You’ve likely heard that making one hamburger takes 660 gallons of water - enough to fill 10 bathtubs. Now, a new claim is circulating: every ChatGPT prompt is equivalent to pouring out a bottle of water. While the numbers may sound exaggerated, they highlight the growing environmental footprint of machine learning, which is being rapidly revealed as artificial intelligence becomes an integral part of modern society. Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence. It